《英文合同導讀》
作者：王 輝
Tasting an English Contract
Learning by study must be won;
“Twas ne’er entailed from son to son.
--Gay, Fables, II, ii.
知識惟有學習獲得，決非世代遺傳。
--蓋伊，《寓言》
前言 (Preamble)與目錄(Contents)略。
第一章 英文合同概述(General Introduction)
In view of all this, we are making a binding agreement, putting it in writing, and our leaders, our Levites and our priests are affixing their seals to it.（Nehemiah BIBLE NIV）
因這一切的事，我們立確實的約，寫在冊上。我們的首領，利未人，和祭司都簽了名。【尼西米】《圣經》新國際版
合同，古稱契約（港臺現仍多用此語），“契”者即證券，證明買賣、抵押、租賃等關系的文書，如契據、房契等。古代典籍中常見此語，《易·系辭》就有“后時圣人易之以書契。” “約”者即共同商定的事,共同議定要遵守的條文，如和約、條約等。《三國演義》中就有“昔高祖約法三章,黎民皆感其德。”
而西方在早在〈〈圣經〉〉中就有關于上帝在西乃山與以色列人立約的記載。挪亞方舟就是籍著上帝與挪亞的契約而建造的：But with thee will I establish my covenant; and thou shalt come into the ark, thou, and thy sons, and thy wife, and thy sons' wives with thee. （但我要與你立約，你以及你的兒子、妻子和兒媳，要與你一同進入方舟。）
第一節：合同與協議：(Contract and Agreement)
而在現代英語合同中，合同一般成為Contract，協議一般稱為Agreement。那么Contract和Agreement是一回事嗎？他們之間又有什么關系呢？《中華人民共和國民法通則》第85條規定：“合同是當事人之間設立、變更、終止民事關系的協議”（A contract shall be an agreement whereby the parties establish, change or terminate their civil relationship）。《中華人民共和國合同法》第二條規定：“合同是平等主體的自然人、法人、其他組織之間設立、變更、終止民事權利義務關系的協議”（Contracts referred to in this Law are agreements between equal natural persons, legal persons and other organizations for the purpose of establishing, altering and terminating mutual civil rights and obligations）。
美國法律整編合同法第二次匯編定義合同為：“合同乃為一個允諾或一組允諾。違反此一允諾時，法律給予救濟；或其允諾之履行，法律在某些情況下視之為一項義務。”（A contract is a promise, or a set of promises, for breach of which the law gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes as a duty.） （Restatement，Second, Contracts, Section 1）這一定義在Steven H. Gifts 編著的Law Dictionary被完全引述. 但一般而言，Contract，乃兩個以上當事人間具有法律約束力之協議，或由一個以上當事人所為一組具有法律約束力之允諾。（A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more parties or a set of legal binding promises made by one party or more.(G. C. Lindsay, Contract, 3rd ed. 1992) 這一表述在L.B. Curzon編撰的Dictionary of Law中概括為“A legally binding agreement creating enforceable obligations.” Chris Turner在其編撰的Contract Law中定義的更為具體明了“A contract is an agreement between two parties by which both are bound in law and which can therefore be enforced in a court or other equivalent forum.”即合同就是對合同方具有法律上約束力，可由法院或其他同等管轄地強制執行的協議。
而在Black’s Law Dictionary（Eighth Edition）對contract 的定義多達8項：1. An agreement two or more parties creating obligations that are enforceable or otherwise recognzable at law 2.The writing that set forth such an agreement.3.引述美國法律整編合同法第二次匯編“contract”的定義.4. Broadly, any legal duty or set of duties not imposed by the law of tort; esp., a duty created by a decree or declaration of a court. 5. The body of law dealing with agreement and exchange.6. The term of an agreement or any particular term. 7.Loosely, a sale or conveyance. 8. Loosely, an enforceable agreement between two or more parties to do or not to do a thing or a set of things; a compact.
至于agreement，L.B. Curzon的Dictionary of Law定義為：“Ａ consensus of minds, or evidence of such consensus, in spoken or written form, relating to anything done or to be done.”是對已做和待做的有關事宜以口頭或書面形式做出的相同意思表示或該意思表示的證據。而在
Black’s Law Dictionary（Eighth Edition） 給Agreement下了兩個定義：一個是“A mutual understanding between two or more persons about their relative duites and obligations regarding past or future performances; a manifestation of mutual assent by two or more persons. ”即雙方或多方就過去或將來的相關職責和義務的履行而達成相互的理解；雙方或多方相互達成一致的表現形式。另一個是“The Parties’ acutal bargain as found in their language or by implication from other circumstances, including course of dealing, usage of trade and course of performance.”即當事人通過語言或其他情形暗示而確立的實際約定，包括交易常例、貿易習慣以及履行慣例。
在ENGLISH-CHINISE BILINGUAL LAW DICTIONARY (2nd ed.)中對agreement作出了如下解釋：
document setting out the contractual terms agreed between two parties or contract between two parties where one party makes an offer, and the other party accepts it.協議，協定，合同（列出雙方當事人同意和約定條件的文件）
Contract(合同)和Agreement(協議)到底能不能相互替換呢？讓我們來看看英文合同相關書籍和詞典的說法。Chris Turner在其Contract Law中是這樣闡述合同的成立：“There are three key ingredients to formation(of contracts): agreement-based on mutuality over the terms, agreement exists when a valid acceptance follows a valid offer; consideration-given by both sides, the quid pro quo, and the proof that the bargain exists; intention to create legal relations-since a contract is legally enforceable, unlike mere gratuitous promises. 即合同成立的三個要件：協議（基于要約與承諾形成對條款的相互一致而存在）、約因（雙方付出的對價及對價存在的證據）和設立法律關系的意愿。（合同具有法律上的執行力，不同于純粹的無償贈予的允諾）這里也是用agreement來解釋contract的，認為contract（合同）是一種符合一定條件的agreement（協議）。
在英語法律用語中雖然多用“agreement”來解釋“contract”，其實也有偶用“contract”解釋“agreement”的情形，如：Agreement,…(2) A contract (The Law Dictionary) 甚至有在同一句中交替使用的實例，如：If the contract contains an innocent mistake, you can get out of the agreement if the mistake is important. (What Should I Know About Contracts, The State Bar of California, 2 Edi. 1984), 還有更為明確的：Agreement. Synonym for Contract (Robert LeRoy & Kenneth A. Buths, Business Law and Taxes, “Glossary”, 1984)
而在Black’s Law Dictionary對agreement的注釋中也能看到“The term’agreement’ frequently as synymous with the word”contract”, is really an expression greater breath of meaning and less technicality. Every contract is an agreement,; but not every agreement is a contract. In its colloquial sense, the term ‘agreement’ would include any arrangement between two or more persons intended to affect their relations (whether legal or otherwise) to each other. An accepted invitation to dinner, for example, would be an agreement in this sense; but it would not be a contract, because it would neither be intended to create, nor would it in fact create, any legal obligation between the parties to it. Further, even an agreement which is intended to affect the obligations of the parties does not necessarily amount to a contract in the strict sense of the term. For instance, a conveyance of land or a gift of a chattel, though involving an agreement is … not a contract; because its primary legal operation is to effect a transfer of property, and not to create an obligation.” 2 Stephen’s Commmentaries on the laws of England 5 (L. Crispin Warmington ed., 21st ed. 1950).
“An agreement, as the courts have said, ‘is nothing more than a mannefestation of mutual assent’ by two or more legally competent persons to one another’ by two or more legally competent persons to one another. Agreementis in some respects a broader term than contract, or even than bargain or promise. It covers excluded sales, gifts, and other transfers of property.” Samuel Williston, A Treaties on the Law of Contracts § at 6 (Walter H.E. Jaeger ed., 3d ed.1957).
綜上所述，我們不難看出，漢語的法律用語僅用協議來解釋合同，而英語的法律用語往往不很嚴格，多用Agreement解釋Contract, 但也有用Contract解釋Agreement的情形, 雖說大多情況Contract與Agreement有所區別，有時候兩者還可以作為同義詞互換使用。可以說contract都是協議，但協議不一定就是Contract。但就廣義的協議和合同來講，還是有區別的：
從成立的宗旨上看，協議十分寬泛不囿于為了當事人間形成法律或其他關系，即便是為影響當事人的義務也未必形成嚴格意義上的合同關系，如不動產轉讓或動產贈與。
從內容、條款上看，合同較為具體、詳盡，著眼于微觀，而協議則較為原則、粗疏，致力于宏觀。實踐中往往合作方就某一項目達成協議對有關原則問題作出約定，然后在此基礎上簽訂合同，再全面明確各項具體的細節。
從涉及范圍上看，合同的標的往往比較單一集中，也很明確；通常都是一事一議，就事論事，而協議的標的往往比較廣泛；一項大型項目的協議往往包括或分解成若干個具體的合同。
從書寫格式上看，合同已基本格式化了，大家可以看到許多的合同范本；而協議的格式相對靈活一些，沒有什么固定的格式。
而狹義的協議和合同并無分別，只是用語上和習慣上的稱呼而已。
<<英文合同導讀>>1.2 合同的種類與名稱(Categories and Titles)
第二節 合同的種類與名稱（Categories and Titles）：
一份英文法律文件, 到底是不是英文合同, 就要看它的內容是否符合合同的要求。一般而言合同不外乎包括人、事、時、地、物五大要素，也就是4W1H (Who, When, Where, What, How),如果你手上的文件內容包括了這五項要素而且簽署生效，該文件就應該具有了合同的性質，而不論它是以何面目出現的。常見的英文合同名稱可分為以下四大類：
一、 合同、協議（Contract; Agreement）
文件名稱直接標明“Contract”或“Agreement”是最常見的英文合同。《中華人民共和國》第九章到第二十三章就合同種類作了概括，它們分別是買賣合同；供用電、水、氣、熱力合同；贈與合同；借款合同；租賃合同；融資租賃合同；承攬合同；建設工程合同；運輸合同；技術合同；保管合同；倉儲合同；委托合同；行紀合同；居間合同等十五大類。（Sales Contracts, Contracts for Supply of Power, Water, Gas or Heat, Donation Contracts, Loan Contracts, Leasing Contracts, Financial Leasing Contract, Work-for-hire Contracts, Construction Project Contracts, Carriage Contracts, Technology Contracts, Safe-keeping Contracts, Warehousing Contracts, Agency Appointment Contracts, Commission Agency Contracts, Brokerage Contracts）
而常見的協議有委托代理協議（Agency Agreement）、合伙協議( Partnership Agreement、股份轉讓協議(Shares Assignment Agreement)、保密協議(Confidentiality Agreement)、競業禁止協議(Non-compete Agreement)、聘用協議（Employment Agreement）等等。
二、 意向書（Letter of Intent）
文件名稱如果標明“Letter of Intent”, “Memorandum of Understanding”(簡稱MOU, 通常翻譯為諒解備忘錄)，甚至只稱為“Memorandum”（簡稱Memo，通常稱之為備忘錄）。另外，也有標明“Minute of Talks”(即會談紀要)。
這些法律文件往往是當事人雙方在商洽合作中形成的，可以稱之為準合同文件，雖然，從名稱上看，它們似乎不是合同或者協議，但這些法律文件，如果經當事人簽訂，即具有一定的法律約束力。甚至，由于沒有形成正式的合同或協議，而徑直依據這些文件而進行實質的合作，使之具有合同或協議的性質。那就是說，合同的效力不能被其名稱所拘束，如果上述的法律文件，其中完整明確地記載了交易的條款，當事人如果依據該條款內容履行，雙方也能達成交易目的。那么這份法律文件就應當視為雙方的合同或者協議。
三、 契約（Covenant, Indenture, Deed, Compact，Protocol）
英文合同還有一些約定俗成的名稱。Covenant, 主要指不動產轉讓的合同或證明文件，英文合同如果基于傳統英美法對價的存在，也會用到這個詞, 表示雙方達成的契約。如：In consideration of mutual premises and covenants herein contained, the parties hereto agree as follows: Indenture通常也是指不動產轉讓的契約文件，Deed一般指地契、房契，Compact多用于國家間的協定、協議。
Protocol, 通常翻譯為草約或者議定書，往往也是雙方會談結果的文字依據。經雙方簽字后，即受其約束，對草約內容承擔法律責任，如果需要補充、修改、完善，雙方還會簽訂補充的協議。
四、 其他書函（Letter; Waiver; Guaranty; Power of Attorney）
英文合同有時候非常簡短，形式上就像信函一樣，姑且稱之為書函類的英文合同，常常用"Letter"（函），"Waiver"（棄權書），"Guaranty"（保證書），"Power of Attorney"（委托書）等簡單明確的字眼作為合同的名稱。相對于"Agreement"或"Contract"類的合同，書函類的合同一般具有補充或附屬的性質，而且經常出現在“Agreement”或“Contract”類合同的附件中。當然書函類的合同對雙方當事人也有完全的拘束力。
例如：甲公司向乙銀行貸款，由丙公司做擔保人，通常甲公司與乙銀行會簽署一份總協議（General Agreement），做為雙方往來的主要依據，再由丙公司簽署一份保證書（Guaranty）給乙銀行，而乙銀行每次撥款時，會發出一份授信書（Credit Letter或Facility Letter）給甲公司，授信書上會載明授信額度，作為甲公司申請撥款的依據。由本例中三份合同可以看出，General Agreement系授信的主要依據，甲公司和丙銀行間的權利義務關系主要由General Agreement來規范，而Guaranty及Credit Letter均為附屬在General Agreement架構下的小合同。丙公司因簽署了Guaranty，因此對乙銀行負有保證義務，乙銀行因為簽署了Credit Letter，因此對甲公司就發生了撥款的義務。
本書撰寫的方式，是針對名稱為"Agreement（狹義）"或"Contract"類型的合同文件做閱讀方法的說明，其原因即在于此類文件的合同結構復雜而內容完整，讀者若能掌握閱讀此類合同的要領，閱讀其它類型的英文合同時自然就“No Problem”沒問題了。
<<英文合同導讀>>第二章 英文合同的特色
第二章 英文合同的特色（Features of English Contracts）
Form follows function.
--motto of the Bauhaus school of architecture
形式服從功能
--鮑豪斯建筑學院校訓
與基礎英語相比，作為專業性極強的語言，英文合同的用語不同于日常語言，具有顯著的特點。首先，句子冗長而且復雜、似乎總也找不到句號，用詞偏僻，晦澀難讀，不易理解。其次，英文合同中往往沿用拉丁語，法律術語，跟中文的文言文似的，著實是佶屈聱牙，令人痛苦不堪。再次，由于屬于專業英語的范疇，英語合同必然涉及法律方面理解，閱讀者除了語言本身的能力外，對于法律也應具備一定的素質。這是所有專業英語的共性，就是需相應的專業知識，這方面本文恕不多言。下面就是Plain English Campaign（直白英語運動）組織所遇到的最長的英文合同的句子，有興趣的讀者不妨看看到底是什么意思：In the event that the Purchaser defaults in the payment of any installment of purchase price, taxes, insurance, interest, or the annual charge described elsewhere herein, or shall default in the performance of any other obligations set forth in this Contract, the Seller may: at his option: (a) Declare immediately due and payable the entire unpaid balance of purchase price, with accrued interest, taxes, and annual charge, and demand full payment thereof, and enforce conveyance of the land by termination of the contract or according to the terms hereof, in which case the Purchaser shall also be liable to the Seller for reasonable attorney's fees for services rendered by any attorney on behalf of the Seller, or (b) sell said land and premises or any part thereof at public auction, in such manner, at such time and place, upon such terms and conditions, and upon such public notice as the Seller may deem best for the interest of all concerned, consisting of advertisement in a newspaper of general circulation in the county or city in which the security property is located at least once a week for Three (3) successive weeks or for such period as applicable law may require and, in case of default of any purchaser, to re-sell with such postponement of sale or resale and upon such public notice thereof as the Seller may determine, and upon compliance by the Purchaser with the terms of sale, and upon judicial approval as may be required by law, convey said land and premises in fee simple to and at the cost of the Purchaser, who shall not be liable to see to the application of the purchase money; and from the proceeds of the sale: First to pay all proper costs and charges, including but not limited to court costs, advertising expenses, auctioneer's allowance, the expenses, if any required to correct any irregularity in the title, premium for Seller's bond, auditor's fee, attorney's fee, and all other expenses of sale occurred in and about the protection and execution of this contract, and all moneys advanced for taxes, assessments, insurance, and with interest thereon as provided herein, and all taxes due upon said land and premises at time of sale, and to retain as compensation a commission of five percent (5%) on the amount of said sale or sales; SECOND, to pay the whole amount then remaining unpaid of the principal of said contract, and interest thereon to date of payment, whether the same shall be due or not, it being understood and agreed that upon such sale before maturity of the contract the balance thereof shall be immediately due and payable; THIRD, to pay liens of record against the security property according to their priority of lien and to the extent that funds remaining in the hands of the Seller are available; and LAST, to pay the remainder of said proceeds, if any, to the vendor, his heirs, personals representatives, successors or assigns upon the delivery and surrender to the vendee of possession of the land and premises, less costs and excess of obtaining possession.
因此，國外，特別是美國要求法律文件的格式和語言應當現代化的呼聲愈來愈強烈。Robert E. Swindle早在美國1980年出版的The Business Communicator一書中就寫到：" ... legal and quasilegal documents can and are being written in everyday language. Several leading companies are rewriting their legal forms voluntarily, and the State of New York recently passed a law requiring that businesses write consumer contracts in nontechnical language. Additionally, the President of the United States has directed all administrative agencies to write future regulations in what he termed plain English for a change." (大意是說法律和準法律性文件能用日常語言書就，而且人們也正在這樣做。幾家大公司自愿重新起草他們的法律文書，紐約州最近也通過一項法律，要求商業企業用非術語草擬消費者合同。另外，美國總統下令所有行政機構在出臺將來的規定時要用他所稱的直白英語進行變革。)而在英國也有一個成立了25年的Plain English Campaign（直白英語運動）組織致力于各種公文的直白英語化，而反對各種官樣文章（gobbledygook）。1999年英國頒布實施的消費者不公平術語法（Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations）也要求消費者合同的術語必須用直白明了的語言（plain and intelligible language）,該法也要求這些術語必須是易讀的，意味著要用清晰的設計和排印（clear design and typography）。類似的法律也在歐盟的國家適用。
但 Law Dictionary的作者Steven H. Gifts在該字典的前言中感嘆到“…the special language of the law remains a barrier to nonlawyers. To the extent that this promotes the economic health of the profession, maintains its aura, and prevent unauthorized practice of the law, it may be regarded as a virtue.”大意是說，法律專業語言對律師以外的人士來講，仍然是一道壁壘。從促進行業經濟的健康發展，保留行業特點和防止未經授權進行律師執業等方面考慮，可以把這種語言壁壘看作是一種行業優勢。
作為非英美法系的非英語國家，面對加入WTO，全球經濟一體化的嚴峻挑戰，我們應該怎樣應對紛繁復雜的英文法律文件和語言呢？盡管Plain English（直白）似乎是大勢所趨，但萬事都有個漸變的過程，長年累月沉淀下來的習慣不是一下就能改變的。拿來主義某種意義上，是必須的，所以我們首先還是應該先通曉傳統的英語合同格式和用語，在精通的基礎上，才能談得上根據實際情況進行進一步的格式和用語方面的改革，取其精華，去其糟粕，當然，這需要一個漫長的過程。以下就針對英文合同的特色分別從篇章結構、用詞、句式結構以及時態四大方面進行說明：
<<英文合同導讀>>2.1篇章結構特點(1) -|馬可菠蘿 發表于 2005-10-18 22:46:04
第一節 篇章結構特點（Text Structure）
一份完整的英文合同通常可以分為標題（Title）、前言(Preamble)、正文(Habendum)、附錄(Schedule)及證明部分即結尾詞(Attestation)五大部分。「標題」在開宗明義地顯示合同的性質；「前言」是用最簡單的說明，大略介紹合同訂立的背景；「正文」里包括依各種合同性質的不同而約定的具體條款，包括不論何種類型合同都會出現的一般條款；[附錄]構成對前述合同正文條款作必要的補充。（不是所有合同都有該部分）最后「結尾」則是當事人簽名前的一段文字，為整份合同畫上完滿的句號。以下分別就此五部分進行說明。
一、合同的標題（Title）
英文合同和中文合同都一樣，標題并不是一定要有的，因為當事人間的法律關系是用合同內容的各個條款來判斷，標題基本上不會產生任何影響。但為方便辨識的考慮，合同撰寫人通常都會依照合同性質，在合同首頁的最上方給予一個適當的標題。在第一章的英文合同名稱中已有介紹，在此不再贅述，僅補充Confirmation(確認書)，Order(定單)經常也會出現在簡易的合同中。
二、合同的前言(Preamble)
英文合同在標題之后，各式各樣的條款出現之前，通常會先有一段「前言」，也稱序言、導言、總則等, 也見有稱為“Non-operative part”者。前言一般不會占去太多的篇幅，目的在于很簡略地介紹合同內容之人、事、時、地、物等背景，讓閱讀合同的人在接觸冗長復雜的正文前，先有一個基礎的認識與心理準備。
詳細來說，前言通常又分作以下兩個段落：
第一部份文字叫做 "Parties" ，也就是合同的「開場白」(Commencement)，內容在說明當事人姓名或名稱、國籍或注冊地國及住所地或主營業地、訂約日期包括各自在合同中的簡稱等等。
EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT (SALES)
EMPLOYMENT AGREEMENT is made and entered into on ________ day of _________ (month), ____ (year), by and between: _______ (hereinafter referred to as the "Company"), a corporation organized and existing under the laws of the State of ____, with its registered office located at ________________, and ______ (hereinafter referred to as the "Employee"), an individual, with nationality of _________ (Passport No._____) residing at _____________.
本聘用協議于___年_月_日簽訂，雙方當事人為：
依_州法律組織設立的________公司 (以下簡稱本公司) ， 主營業地為_______，與
___國籍的____ (護照號碼: _____)(以下簡稱雇員), 居住于_________________。
& by and between
要表示合同是由哪些當事人所訂定，英文中通常會說"This Agreement is made by and between..."，用"by"來表示合同「由誰訂定」，"between"來表示「誰與誰之間的訂立」。如果當事人不只兩個，也可以用"by and among"來代替。
& organized and existing
合同開場白里要說明當事人的國籍，在自然人的情況下可以用"a national of ..."或"an individual with the nationality of ..."來表示，如果是法人組織多半使用"organized and existing under the laws of ..."這樣的字眼，其中"organized"也可以用"incorporated"來代替。
& registered office
"registered office"是指一個公司的「注冊所在地」，它和"principal office" 或“ principal place of business”即「主營業地」并不一定位于同一個地方。
第二部份叫做"Recitals"，是由數個以"Whereas"字樣開頭的句子所組合而成（這些句子俗稱為"Whereas Clauses" 即鑒于條款）。 "Whereas"的本義是"When in fact"、"considering that"、或"that being the case"的意思，所以"Whereas Clauses"就表示當事人乃是在基于對這些事實（例如訂約的目的、背景、原由等）的共同認識，訂立此合同。以下是一個補償貿易合同（Compensation Trade Contract）的Whereas Clauses，很簡單明了地表達了雙方合作的意愿。
WITNESSETH
Whereas Party B has machines and equipment, which are now used in Party B's
manufacturing of steel wire rope, and is willing to sell to Party A the machines
and equipment; and
Whereas Party B agrees to buy the products, steel wire rope, made by Party A
using the machines and equipment Party B supplies, in compensation of the price
of the machines and equipment, and
Whereas Party A agrees to purchase from Party B the machines and equipment, and
Whereas Party A agrees to sell to Party B the products, the steel wire rope, in
compensation of the price of Party B's machines and equipment;
茲證明(通常不譯)
鑒于乙方擁有用于生產鋼絲繩的機械設備，愿向甲方出售該機械設備；
鑒于乙方同意購買甲方用乙方所供應的該機械設備生產的產品，鋼絲繩來補償該機械設備的價款；
鑒于甲方同意從乙方購買該機械設備；
鑒于甲方同意向乙方出售產品鋼絲繩以補償乙方機械設備的價款；
緊接在一串whereas clauses之后，會出現類似上例中的"Now Therefore, in consideration [對價/約因（港臺多用此遇）] of……:"這樣一句話，表明合同是有償合同，目的在提醒閱讀合同的人，真正規范訂約當事人權利義務關系的條款在這句話之后就要開始了，也就是說，這句話是前言與正文之間過渡的橋梁，在此之前為訂約背景事實的敘述，在此之后則為關于交易關系的實體約定（一般稱為"operative part/clauses"）。
例如：Now therefore, in consideration of the premises and covenants described hereinafter, Party A and Party B agree as follows:
茲以上述各點和契約所載條款為約因，訂約雙方協議如下：
[原創]<<英文合同導讀>>2.1篇章結構特點(2)
三、正文(Hanbendum/Operative part)
正文(Hanbendum) 部分, 也稱Operative part/clauses或Body, 具體約定當事人的權利義務。各式各樣的正文條款是合同中最核心的部份，也是篇幅最大的部份，與當事人的權利義務關系發生最直接、最密切的牽連。
本書擬將英文合同中的正文條款分為兩類：「特殊條款」與「一般條款」。所謂「特殊條款」指的是只有在某些特定性質的合同中才會出現的條款，例如勞動合同中通常會約定保密條款、競業禁止條款，但是買賣同就不會有這些約定。反過來說，買賣合同中一般要記載交易標的、交易條件等等條款，在勞動合同中就不會出現。
相對于「特殊條款」的所謂「一般條款」，指的是不論合同性質如何，幾乎所有的合同中都會記載的條款，例如管轄法院的約定、違約條款等等，將于第四章中詳細介紹，在此亦不贅述。
四、附錄（Schedule）
附錄也稱Addendum, Annex或Exhibit，也有用Attachment, List或Table表示的。附錄部分作為對正文條款的補充，不是所有英文合同都有的一項。以下就是一份聘用協議的附錄，對該公司聘用的經理職責作出補充說明：
THE SCHEDULE ABOVE REFERRED TO
1． To manage, maintain and promote the business of the Company
2． To attend personally during the usual hours of business and to supervise and control the business and to be accessible to customers and employees of the Company.
3． To keep the usual books of account.
4． To pay daily all money received in the business into the Company’s bank account.
5． Generally to protect the interests of the Company.
上文提及的附錄是指：
1． 管理，維持并促進公司的經營
2． 親自參與公司的日常經營，監管經營，對本公司的客戶和員工平易近人。
3． 保管日常賬冊。
4． 支付日常公司經營到帳的款項
5． 廣泛地保護公司的利益
此外，即便是有這部分的英文合同，也經常因為附錄的內容龐雜篇幅較長，如有關的圖表或者其他法律文書，而放在合同的最后單獨列明。下文就是單獨列在合同后的附錄的一個信用證：
EXHIBIT B Letter of Credit
XYZ BANK LIMLTED
[Address]
Credit Bank, N. A.
International Banking Facility
Los Angeles, California 90000 U.S.A.
Date:
Letter of Credit No.:
Gentlemen:
We hereby establish this irrevocable letter of credit in your favor for account
of ABC Company in the amount of U. S. $ _______ (amount in words), available
against your draft(s) drawn at sight on Credit Bank, N.A., Letter of Credit
Department, Los Angeles, California, accompanied by your signed and dated
statement as follows:
"The amount drawn under Letter of Credit No.[_________]dated[_______] issued by
XYZ Bank Limited on behalf of ABC Company is payable to the undersigned pursuant
to the terms of that certain Loan Agreement dated as of _________, 20 ___,
between ABC Company and Credit Bank. N.A."
All drafts drawn under this Letter of Credit must bear the clause "Drawn under
XYZ Bank Limited Letter of Credit Number_____, dated_______, 20 ___.
Partial drawings are permitted.
We hereby engage with the drawers, endorsers and bona fide holders of drafts
drawn under and in compliance with the terms of this Letter of Credit that the
drafts will be duly honored if drawn and presented to the above drawn in Los
Angeles, California, on or before [Expiry date 30 days after the final
Installment Payment Date].
This Letter of Credit is subject to the Uniform Customs and Practice for
Documentary Credits (1983 Revision), International Chamber of Commerce,
Publication No. 400.
Special Instructions to Drawee Bank
In reimbursement for any payment made by you hereunder, you may debit our
account with you.
XYZ BANK LIMITED
BY____________
(Authorized Signature)
附件B：
XYZ銀行
地址：
北美信貸銀行
國際銀行業務部
美國加州洛杉璣
日期：
信用證號碼：
*先生
我行在此開立，以ABC公司為受益人，總額為*美元的不可撤銷信用證，憑交加州洛杉璣北美信貸銀行信用證部開出的即期匯票付款。并附有貴行簽署、具名日期的如下聲明：
由XYZ銀行代表ABC公司*年*月*日開立的第*號信用證項下款項系根據ABC公司與北美信貸銀行*年*月*日訂立的某貸款協議條款規定，付與簽字人。
本證項下開具的匯票須注明“本匯票系憑XYZ銀行……年……月……日第…號信用證下開具”的條款。
允許部分提款。
凡根據本證開具與本證條款相符的匯票，如按時開具提交我行，我行保證對出票人、背書人和善意持有人不遲于最后分期付款日后30天內承擔付款責任。
本信用證系根據國際商會第400號出版物跟單信用證統一慣例與實務（1983年版）繕制。
付款行特別指令
貴行本信用證項下所付款項，記入我行與貴行的借記帳戶。
XYZ銀行
授權簽字
五、證明部分（Attestation）
英文合同結構中的最后一個部份就是結尾辭即證明部分與當事人的簽名。所謂「結尾辭」指的是在當事人簽名之前經常會出現一段文字，相當于中文合同中“雙方簽字蓋章，特此為證”。除了表明簽名人確實為正當授權的代表外，還會具明簽名的日期。至于簽名檔的部份，如果當事人是公司的話，除了代表人的簽名以外，還要加蓋公司印鑒，并且通常會注明代表人的職務(title)。
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have caused this Agreement to be executed by duly authorized representatives of both parties on the date and year first written above.
___________________ ___________________
By: By:
Title: Title:
本協議由被授權之人，于本協議上述所記載日期，代表雙方當事人締結生效之，特此為證。
_________________ __________________
代表人： 代表人：
職務： 職務：
& IN WITNESS WHEREOF
這三個詞是英文合同結尾辭的標準模式，實體上講并沒有什幺特別的功能或意義，與中文合同里最后通常會記載的「恐口說無憑，特立契為證」很類似，也有用IN TESTIMONY WHEREOF 替代，有時候也會用"INTENDING TO BE LEGALLY BOUND"代替，意思也是一樣的。
& duly authorized representatives
當合同之當事人為法人組織時，必須推選出一位自然人作為法定代表人，例如公司的法定代表人通常會是董事長，代表公司對外簽訂合同，建立權利義務關系。除了董事長根據法律當然具備對外代表公司的權限之外，公司董事會也可以通過決議授權某一個董事、總經理、或其它重要職員作為公司簽約的代表人，此時與公司簽約的對方當事人為了確保這個代表人的確屬于"duly authorized representative"，可以要求公司提供這個授權的董事會決議證明，以妥善保護自己的權益。下面就是一個董事會對采購員的授權決議：
BOARD OF DIRECTORS' RESOLUTION
DESIGNATING A PURCHASING AGENT
Pursuant to a duly made, seconded, and carried motion the Board of Directors of __________ _________________ (hereinafter referred to as Corporation) adopted the following resolution by a unanimous vote:
RESOLVED, that ______________________ is hereby appointed Purchasing Agent of this Corporation with limited authority to make purchases in the Corporation's name and behalf. Under no circumstances will the Purchasing Agent have real or apparent authority to make a purchase for the Corporation if the dollar amount of said purchase or the total dollar amount of an installment purchase will exceed the amount of __________ dollars ($___________).
I The undersigned, _________________________, certifies that he or she is the duly appointed Secretary of _______________________ Corporation and that the above is a true and correct copy of a resolution duly adopted at a meeting of the directors thereof, convened and held in accordance with law and the Bylaws of said Corporation on _____________, (Date) and that such resolution is now in full force and effect.
IN WITNESS THEREOF, I have affixed my name as Secretary of _________________
____________________ Corporation and have attached the seal of ________________
____________________ Corporation to this resolution.
Dated: ______________________ ___________________________
Secretary
Seal:
董事會決議：
任命采購員：
就已第二次提起到董事會的動議，本公司董事會全體一致通過如下決議：
茲決議，本公司授權***為本公司采購員，以本公司名義代表本公司對外采買。但其單筆采購金額或分期購買的總額不得超過****美元。超過該數額該采購員概無真實或表見代理權。
我，簽字人，證明***，他/她是本公司正式任命的秘書，以上是本公司董事會決議的真實準確的副本，該決議系按法律和本公司章程在*年*月*日召開的董事會上正式通過，現完全有效。
作為公司秘書我簽字并蓋公司印鑒于該決議，特此為證。
日期：*年*月*日
秘書：（簽字）
公司印鑒：（蓋章）
& the date and year first written above
如果合同結尾辭里注明的日期和合同前言所載明的日期相同，就用這句話表示，如果不同的話，就應該另以條款明定合同生效日（Effective Date），以免產生爭議。如下例：
After this contract is signed by the duly authorized representatives of both parties, both parties shall submit the contract to their governments or Boards of Directors for approval. The date when the later party obtains the approval shall be taken as the effective date of the contract. Both parties shall attempt to get the contract approval within 60 days from signing and notify by telex or cable the other party of the approval which is confirmed by the following registered air-mail letter.
本合同經雙方正式授權代表簽署后，應提交各自政府或董事會批準。以后一方獲得批準日期為本合同生效日。雙方應盡力在合同簽署后60日內獲得批準并以電傳或電報形式通知該批準，隨后以航空掛號郵件確認。
<<英文合同導讀>>2.2 用詞特點(1) -|馬可菠蘿 發表于 2005-11-1 21:55:31
第二節 用詞特點（Wording）
作為正式法律文件，英語合同在用詞方面極其考究，要求選詞專業（professional）,正式（formal）,準確（accuracy）。具體體現如下：
1．專業性術語（Technical Terms/ Terminology）
法律專業性術語是在合同等法律文件中才用到的詞匯，它并不以一般受眾為對象，而針對專業人士，力求使語言表達準確無誤。中文合同中常見的諸如“瑕疵”（defect）、“救濟”（remedy）、“不可抗力”（force Majeure）、“管轄”(jurisdiction)等專業用詞就已經讓非專業人士大惑不解了，英文合同的專業用詞自然就更玄妙無比了。 具體的實例如下：
l Without prejudice to the parties' rights under Clause 18. 1, the indemnities provided for in Clausel6. 1 and/or 16. 2 and/or 16. 3 shall be the sole compensation for the damages caused by such delays.不妨害18.1款雙方的權利，16.1,16.2及16.3款規定的賠償應為上述延誤引起損害的唯一賠償金。indemnities較compensation專業，此處用compensation解釋了indemnities；
l Any such assignment, transfer or conveyance shall be without other consideration than the mutual covenants and considerations of this agreement.任何轉讓除根據本協議相互契約和對價外不得考慮其他。Transfer，assignment和conveyance都有轉讓的含義，其中assignment和conveyance（多用于不動產）尤為專業。
l We advise you of our intention to terminate our tenancy on or before ________________ (Date) and to deliver to you full possession of the premises。我方不遲于某日期通知你方終止租約并交還房屋全部所有。tenancy指房屋租賃的租約，而premises指租賃的房屋及其附屬物都是專業用語。
l Licensee agrees to pay to Licensor a minimum royalty of___________ Dollars ($______) as a minimum guarantee against royalties to be paid to Licensor during the first contract term, said minimum royalty to be paid on or before the last day of the initial term hereto. 受許可方同意支付許可方最低使用費*美元作為該許可合同第一期使用費的最低保證金，該最低使用費不遲于本合同的入門期最后一天支付給許可方。Royalties在許可合同中專指特許權使用費。
l Price of the Contract shall be calculated on Royalty in accordance with the content and scope stipulated in Article 2 to the Contract and shall be paid in___________.按照第二條規定的內容和范圍。本合同采用提成方式計算價格，計價的貨幣為＿＿＿。與上例不同的是，這里的royalty指的是許可合同計價方式的一種即提成計價(royalty price),相對于統包價格（lumpsum price）
l Default in observing or performing any of the covenants or agreements of debtor set forth in any collateral document of security given to secure indebtedness hereunder, and the continuation of such default beyond any period of grace specified in any such document.
借款人未能履行契約或附帶的擔保文件列明的協議，以及該違約的持續超過上述文件規定的寬限期。在借款合同中grace專指寬限期，而不是普通英語的其他意思。
l Furthermore, the parties agree that the following situations shall be considered as exceptional circumstances which justify the earlier termination by the other party: bankruptcy, moratorium, receivership, liquidation or any kind of composition between the debtor and the creditors, or any circumstances which are likely to affect substantially one party's ability to carry out his obligations under this contract。此外，雙方同意以下條件應認為是對方合理提前終止合同的例外情形：破產、延付令、破產在管、清算或其他債權人和債務人任何形式的和解，或任何可能對一方履行合同項下義務能力造成實質影響的情形。此處的composition顯然不是普通英語中“作文”的意思，而是指破產和解。
l In addition, upon request of the Board and if the Liquidating Trustee determines that it would be imprudent to dispose of any non-cash assets of the Company, such assets may be distributed in kind to the Members in lieu of cash, proportionately to their right to receive cash distributions hereunder.另外，應董事會請求且如果清算托管人確定處理本公司非現金財產非明智之舉，該財產可按各成員根據合同項下收取現金份額的權利以實物形式替代現金進行分配。In kind 此處與in cash 相對，通常用于合資、合伙協議中表示“以實物出資”，本句中是以實物分配清算。In lieu of 表示替代相當于基礎英語中的instead of。
l The Buyer shall establish the covering letter of credit before the date specified in Clause Three of this Sales Confirmation, failing which the Seller reserves the right to rescind without further notice, or to accept whole or any part of this Sales Confirmation not fulfilled by the Buyer, or to lodge a claim for losses sustained, if any.買方須于銷售確認書第三條所規定的日期之前開出本批交易的信用證。否則，售方有權不經通知取消本確認書，或接受買方對本銷售確認書未履行的全部或一部分，或對因此遭受的損失提出索賠。Reserve為專用詞匯，我們常見的“版權所有”英語表達就是All rights reserved。Rescind（取消合同/協議）和lodge（提出索賠，與claim(s)連用）也都是專業用語。
l In case one party desires to sell or assign all or part of his investment subscribed, the other party shall have the preemptive right. 如一方欲出售或轉讓其所投資的部分或全部，另一方應有優先購買權。Assign（其名詞形式assignment）和Preemptive屬專業用語。
2. 正式用語（Formal Terms）
英文合同，習慣采用書面的形式，合同往往使用正式的書面用語，較少使用口頭用語，以顯示合同正規、嚴肅。具體實例如下：
l At the request of Party B, Party A agrees to send technicians to assist Party B to install the equipment.應乙方要求，甲方同意派遣技術人員幫助乙方安裝設備。 assist 較 help 正式；
l The personnel shall not to partake in any political activities in Iraq.所有人員不得參加伊拉克國內的任何政治活動。partake in 較 take part in 正式；
l The Employer shall render correct technical guidance to the personnel.雇主應該對有關人員給予正確技術指導。 render 較 give 正式；
l Party A shall repatriate the patient to China and bear the cost of his passage to Guangzhou.甲方應將病人遣返中國并負責其返回廣州的旅費。 repatriate 較 send back 正式；
l This Contract shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of China.本合同受中國法律管轄，并按中國法律解釋。construe 較 explain, interpret 正式；in accordance with 較according to正式。
l The Employer may object to and require the Contractor to replace forthwith any of its authorized representatives who is incompetent.雇主認為承包人委派的授權代表不合格時，可以反對并要求立即撤換。require較ask正式；而且，require表示上對下的要求，ask沒有這么明確，它含有request和require之意，其中request表示下對上的要求，即“請求”公文體forthwith 較 at once 正式；
l The Chairperson may convene and preside an interim meeting based on a proposal made by one-third of the total number of directors.董事長可以根據董事會過1/3董事的提議而召集主持臨時董事會議。Convene較hold正式，preside較be in charge of 正式，interim也是正式用詞較temporary正式。
l In processing transactions, the manufacturers shall never have title either to the materials or the finished products.加工貿易中，廠方無論是對原料還是成品都無所有權。 title 較 ownership 正式。
l The term "Effective date" means the date on which this Agreement is duly executed by the parties hereto.“生效期”指雙方合同簽字的日子。 execute 較 sign 正式；
l The submission to and consent by the Engineer of such programs or the provision of such general descriptions or cash flow estimates shall not relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or responsibilities under the Contract.向工程師提交并同意的上述進度計劃或提供上述一般說明或現金流量估算，并不解除合同規定的承包人的任何義務或責任。Consent和estimate都是正式用詞；
l The Appendix hereto shall, through the contract period, be deemed to be construed as an integral part of this Contract. 整個合同期間，本合同附件應理解為合同不可分割的一部分。deem較consider正式。
l The parties shall work together in order to endeavour to achieve the timely completion of the Project in accordance with the Project Schedule as Annex 4 according to which the construction period shall be _________years from the commencement date.雙方共同努力確保按附件四的工程進度表及時竣工，根據該工程進度表工期應從開工日起*年。Commencement較starting、beginning正式。
·[原創]<<英文合同導讀>>2.2 用詞特點(2)
3． 同、近義詞、相關詞并列（Parallel Synonyms, Parasynonyms and Associated/Binomial Expressions）
在英文合同中同近義詞或相關詞成對或多個并列連用，使合同周密嚴謹，以減少漏洞和爭議。
l This agreement is made and entered into by and between Party A and Party B.本協議由甲方與乙方簽訂。句中made與entered into同義，而by與between相關。
l Party A agrees to purchase from Party B the following commodity under the terms and conditions set out below: 甲方同意按照下列條款向乙方購買如下商品：terms 和conditions同義，往往并列連用表示合同的條款。
l Party A shall be unauthorized to accept any order sort to collect any account on and after September 20. 自9月2O日起，甲方已無權接受任何定單或收據。On與after相關詞連用用以明確時間。
l Any partner or his/her agent, may review any and all accounting or other records at anytime.任何合伙人或其代理人，可隨時審查任一或全部會計賬目或其他記錄。Any 與 all 相關詞連用，表達更為嚴謹。
l The decision by such arbitration shall be accepted as final and binding upon both parties。該仲裁裁決為終局裁決，雙方均受其約束。Final和binding屬相關詞連用。
l The Company hereby releases and discharges Party A from further performance of, and any duties, obligations or liabilities under, the amended Agreement.本公司特此解除甲方已修正協議的進一步履行及其修正協議下的義務和責任。Release和discharge相關詞連用，duty，obligation和liability屬近同義詞連用。
l If the Contractor shall duly perform and observe all the terms, provisions, conditions and stipulations of the said Contract, this obligation shall be null or void but otherwise shall be and remain in full force and effect.如果承包人切實履行并遵守上述合同的所有條款、條件及規定，此義務即告終止，否則將保持完全有效。句中terms, provisions, conditions，stipulations為一組同義詞，意為合同的條款及規定，null和void，be和remain，force和effect也都是同義連用。
l While this agreement is in effect, the Author shall not, without the prior written consent of the Publisher, write, edit, print, or publish, or cause to be written, edited, printed or published, any other edition of the Work, whether revised, supplemented, corrected, enlarged, abridged, or otherwise….
l May be fixed or varied from time to time at and in accordance with the sole discretion and opinion of the Selleror its factor….
4.大寫字母的運用（Capitalization）
英文合同中，有些詞的首字母需要大寫。需要大寫首字母的詞除了基礎英語中用在句首的一般情形外，尤其應注意下列的幾種情況：
l 當事人
當事人指合同雙方或各方（一般為兩方以上）時，首字母通常大寫。例如：
Party B shall inspect the raw materials supplied by Party A forthwith upon receipt thereof.
乙方應一經收到甲方提供的原材料，即行檢驗。
l 機構名稱
英文合同中涉及的機構名稱，首字母要大寫。例如：
China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission.
（中國國際經濟貿易仲裁委員會）
International Institute for the Unification of Private Law （簡稱UNIDROIT）
（國際統一私法協會）
The Board of Directors (董事會)
l 合同涉及的特指名稱
在英文合同中，一些涉及到的關鍵詞語，一般首字母要大寫。通常會在合同的定義條款中定義，然后再重復使用。例如：
The Acceptance Test Manual shall be the document prepared by A which will be used by A and the Purchaser FOR checking that the Equipment is in accordance with the specification and Approved Data.
本驗收實驗手冊系指由A提供的，供A與買方檢驗設備是否符合技術規格和認可資料的文件。句中的Acceptance Test Manual , Equipment, Approved Data均有特指含義。
l 本合同及合同具體條款及附件名稱
Such Site Acceptance shall take place within a period of two weeks after the Effective Date to the Contract as such period may be extended pursuant to Article 6 hereof.
現場驗收應在本合同生效日后2周內進行，此項驗收的時間按本合同第6條延長。
Party A and Party B shall make full endeavors to fulfill this Contract with the stipulated period. The schedule of various activities is attached at Appendix 4.
甲乙雙方應竭盡全力在規定的期間內完成本合同，各活動的日程表見附件4
l 國際公約、慣例和國家法律法規、條例規章等的名稱，
例如：This Contract is signed on a mutuality voluntary basis by and between the following Employer and Employee in accordance with "The Labour Law of The People's Republic of China."
本合同在自愿的基礎上由聘用方和受聘方根據《中華人民共和國勞動法》達成協議如下：
合同提及的國際公約、慣例的首字母也需大寫，如：
International Chamber of Commerce Term 2000(簡稱INCOTERMS 2000)
2000年國際貿易術語解釋通則
也稱International Rules for the Interpretation of Trade Terms 2000
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods（簡稱CISG）
《聯合國國際貨物買賣合同公約》
The Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits,1993 Revision ICC Publication No. 500
《跟單統一信用證統一慣例》（1993年修訂本，國際商會第500號出版物）
The Uniform Law on International Sale of Goods 《國際貨物買賣統一法》
The Uniform Law on the Formation OF Contracts for the International Sale of Goods
《國際貨物買賣合同成立統一法》
The Principles of International Commercial Contracts
《國際商事合同通則》
l 合同中的貨幣名稱
Party A shall pay Party B a monthly salary of US$600 (SAY FIVE HUNDRED US DOLLARS ONLY). 聘方須每月付給受聘方美元600元整。SAY表示后接大寫，ONLY表示整
此外，英文合同為強調某些部分而用大寫字母書寫以資醒目。
例如在英文合同的開頭往往有這樣的句子：This AGREEMENT … WITNESSES that WHEREAS … and WHEREAS … NOW THEREFORE, in consideration of it is hereby agreed as follows:
[原創]<<英文合同導讀>>2.2 用詞特點(3) -|馬可菠蘿 發表于 2005-11-16 22:37:50
版權聲明：本書的版權屬于作者本人，未經作者本人同意，不得轉載、轉貼。任何其他人出版、發行或以其它方式使用本書的，請直接與作者聯系取得書面授權或同意。
5.古體詞與外來詞（Archaic Words and Loan Words）
英文合同中迄今仍然使用一些古體詞語，最突出的形式是把here, there, where加上介詞而構成的復合副詞。如：hereby, hereto, hereunto, herein, hereinafter, hereinbefore, hereunder, thereof, thereto，whereby, whereas等等。Here+介詞一類往往可以套用介詞+this agreement來幫助理解。There/where+介詞就需要考慮上下文參照here+介詞的理解方法。具體的理解和運用將在第3章英文合同常用詞一節詳述。
基于民法法系對普通法系的影響，英文合同的外來詞主要是法語和拉丁語，有些外來詞已經同化為英語，成為英語詞匯的一部分，還有一些保留下來，現在仍在使用。連Contract這個詞都是從拉丁語contractus演化來的呢。英文合同中常見的不可抗力條款用的Force Majeure也是拉丁語。具體例子如下：
l The arbitration shall take place in the Plaintiff’s or Defendant’s country.仲裁應在原告或被告的國家進行。Plaintiff 和 defendant原為法語，現在已同化為英語。
l The provisions of Paragraph 6 and Paragraph 12 of the US Plan apply mutatis mutandis to the UK Scheme, save that if an amendment is made to the UK Scheme or to the terms of an Approved Stock Option at a time when the UK Scheme is approved by the Inland Revenue under Schedule 9, the approval will not thereafter have effect unless the Inland Revenue have approved the alteration or addition. 應用于英方方案的美方規劃的第6節和第12節的規定的已作必要的修正，除非對英方方案或已批準股票期權條款的修改時值根據附件9英方方案已獲批準，此后該批準不得生效，除非內稅局已批準該改變或增補。mutatis mutandis為拉丁語，意為已作必要的修正。
l An allowance on the basis of 2% of the sales price for each unit shall be calculated and deducted from the purchase price fraction pro rata. 補貼應按每單位售價的2%計算并從購價中按比例扣除。Pro rata 為拉丁語意為in proportion, according to a factor that can be calculated exactly.
l We appoint and empower Mr./Ms. _____________ to be our agent ad litem in the first and second instances and/or retrial respectively, as well as in the enforcement procedures, with respect to the case of _______vs.__________.我方委托授權某先生/女士為某案一審，二審，再審和執行程序的委托代理人。Ad litem為拉丁語“for the suit”. Agent ad litem表示為訴訟代理人。
6. 助動詞的準確使用（Auxiliaries）
英文合同中，shall并非單純表示將來時，而常用來表示法律上可強制執行的義務，具有約束力，“應”、“應該”、“必須”；其否定形式shall not則禁止某種行為，一般宜譯為“不得”， will無論語氣還是強制力要比shall弱，宜譯為“將”、“原”、“要”；should通常只用來表示語氣較強的假設、比如“萬一”。 多用"shall"代替"will"或"should"加強語氣和強制力。
l This Contract shall become effective upon and from the date on which it is signed.
本合同簽字生效。
l This Contract shall be written in English in four copies. Each party shall keep two copies.
本合同應以英文寫成，一式四份，雙方各持兩份。
l Investment contributed by the parties is Renminbi __________, which will be the registered capital of the joint venture company. 各方認繳投資總額為人民幣***，將作為合資公司注冊資本。
May則時常用來表達當事人擁有的選擇性權利。如During the Option Period, the Purchaser may terminate this Agreement with a written notice to the Seller. 選擇期間，買方可書面通知賣方終止本協議。但其否定形式may not另看下例：
l The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract by friendly negotiations. Should such negotiations fail, such dispute may be referred to the People’s Court having jurisdiction on such disput,e for settlement in the absence of any arbitration clause in the disputed contract or in default of agreement reached after such dispute occurs.首先，合同雙方應通過友好協商解決合同產生與合同有關的爭議。如協商不成，所爭議合同缺少仲裁條款或爭議后未達成仲裁協議，則該爭議可提交到有管轄權的人民法院訴訟解決。
本句中shall，should和may的表達準確，符合人們通過“協商”—“仲裁”—“訴訟”解決爭議的基本流程。Shall表示義務性約定，should表示假設條件不成就，may表示行使選擇性權利。
[原創]<<英文合同導讀>>2.3 句式特點(1)
第三節 句式結構特點（Sentence Structure）
1. 句子冗長，結構嚴謹，語序復雜(prolixity, preciseness and perplexity )
英文合同為了準確、嚴密、清楚地表達，多以龐雜的從句和/或短語并列，語序復雜多變的長句面目出現，很少以簡單句為主。
A．主句的狀語的位置，一般放在助動詞后，行為動詞前，與基礎英語頻度副詞如；often，sometimes，always，never，seldom的位置相同。例如：
l The Company shall, at all time during the term of the Joint Venture, effect and maintain full and adequate insurance against loss or damage by fire and such risks as are customarily issued in connection with the operation of the Company.合資公司應在合資期間的任何時候，就火災以及此類與公司經營相關的其他風險所造成的損失或損害進行投保，并保持充分和適當的保險。
l If, at any time during the execution of the Work, the Engineer requires the Contractor to make bore-holes or to carry out exploratory excavation, such requirement shall in accordance with Clause 51, be the subject of an instruction unless an item or a Provisional Sum in respect of such work is included in the Bill of Quantities.在工程施工過程中的任何時間內，如果工程師要求承包人鉆孔或進行勘探性開挖，則根據第51條規定以指示形式下達這一要求，但工程量報價表中已經包括了涉及此類工作的項號或暫定金額者除外。
B．從句復雜，從句的狀語，往往放在連詞之后，從句的句子之前。例如：
l If, at any time during the execution of the Contract, either of the Parties to the contract is prevented from executing the Contract in case of Force Majeure such as war, serious fires, flood, typhoon and earthquake, etc., the time for execution of the Contract shall be extended for a period equal to the affect of those causes.在合同期間的任何時候，合同任一方，由于受到戰爭、嚴重火災、洪水、臺風和地震等不可抗力事件的影響而不能履行合同時，合同履行期應予延長，延長期限相當于事件影響的時間。
l If, at the time and in the place agreed under Sub-Clause 37.3, the materials or plant are not ready for inspecting or testing or if, as a result of the inspection or testing referred to in this Clause, the Engineer determines that the materials or plant are defective or otherwise not in accordance with the Contract, the Engineer may reject the materials or the plant and shall notify the Contract thereof immediately.如果在按第37.3條約定的時間和地點，供檢查和檢驗的材料或工程設備未準備好，或者按本條規定所作的檢查或檢驗結果，工程師認為材料或工程設備有缺陷或是不符合合同規定的，則工程師可拒收這些材料或工程設備，并應立即通知承包人。（本句較為復雜，有兩個條件從句，一個賓語從句）
C．主從復合句，從句經常用簡略形式。例如：
l A party dissatisfied with the judgment may, within 15 day upon receipt of the judgment, file an appeal to the next upper People’s Court.如不服本判決，該方可于接到判決之日起十五日內向上一級法院提起上訴。
l The Contractor shall, unless otherwise provided in the Contract, make his own arrangement for the engagement of all staff and labour, local or other, and for their payment, housing, feeding and transport.除合同另有規定外，承包人應自行安排從當地或其他地方雇用的所有職員和勞務人員，以及他們的報酬、住房、膳食和交通。
2． 否定前置與倒裝(Negative Fronting and Anastrophe)
英語中處理否定的方式一般有兩種：一是否定詞放在情態動詞或助動詞后，行為動詞前，構成正常的陳述語序；二是否定詞放在句首，然后情態動詞或助動詞與主語位置調換，構成倒裝語序。英文合同中含否定意義的句子往往采用后者。例如：
否定僅前置：(Fronting)
l Nothing in Article 12.3 shall prevent Party A or any of its affiliation from continuing to carry on any of their present businesses.合同第十二條第三款規定不得妨礙甲方或其分支機構持續經營現有業務。
l Neither party, without prior consent of the other, may assign or transfer to nay third party any equity interests held by its side.未經對方同意，任一方不得向任何第三人轉讓其持有的股權。
否定倒裝：(Anastrophe)
l In no event shall the Seller be liable for lost profits, delay, injury to goodwill or any special or consequential damages howsoever any of the same are caused.對于利潤損失、延誤、商譽損害或任何特別或間接的損害賠償，不論任何原因引起的，賣方概不承擔責任。
l In this case, Party B shall refund to Party A the amount which Party A has paid to Party B plus the related interest at the rate of 10% per year immediately, but in no case shall such refunding by Party B exceeds 30 days from receipt from Party A of the notice to terminate the contract.在此種情況下，乙方應立即返還甲方已支付給乙方的款項并按年利率10%加算利息，但不論怎樣乙方該返還不得超過收到甲方終止合同通知后30日。
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